Essay on Hadrian's Wall

Tolia- Kelly, Divya P. “Narrating the postcolonial landscape: archaeologies of race at Hadrian”. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 36: 1 (2011): 71-88.

Archaeology is a broad topic in which it gives the opportunity to people to discover the history behind a nation. The finding of Royal Annals in Egypt was a blessing for all Egyptologists who could finally put the past Kings rulings in a chronological order. The Minoans lefts their traces on their homeland, the island of Crete, while the Mycenaeans were discovered to have been the first Greek civilization. The Romans are still famous today in regards to many things such as their rulers, monuments, their wars and conquerings, their roads and aqueducts, and their way of living. This nation had become a dangerous empire that had brought on every others nation's admiration, envy or hate. Unfortunately, all good things must come to an end but the collapse of the Roman Empire did not destroy the value of its accomplishments and failures. Endless stories are told regarding this nation and one of them is concerning Hadrian’s Wall. Many different stories are told based of the same monument today after so many years which plenty of researchers have explored. For example, Dr. Divya P. Tolia-Kelly who organized the “Archaeology of ‘Race’” exhibition which focussed on Hadrian’s Wall which is discussed even further in her article “Narrating the postcolonial landscape: archaeologies of race at Hadrian”. Dr. Tolia-Kelly is currently a teacher at Durham University in the Department of Geography. She has written quite a few books and articles on different topics regarding geography, race, culture, and archaeology. “The aim of the paper is to demonstrate how a critical postcolonial approach is taken in developing an exhibition of the archaeological and geographical narratives linked to [Britain’s] national landscape” (Tolia-Kelly 71). The mask that I had done in my Ancient Archaeology class with my classmate Joseph Hamelin can relate to the author’s goal. The mask does not necessarily resemble something specific because none of us were professional artists but anybody can imply there own assumptions. Many different stories can arise from it.

Up until now, the presentation that had been made of the Hadrian’s Wall had been what could be said to be a lie. It is true that Emperor Hadrian had been the one who initially built the Wall in Britain but he was not the only person who had contributed. Over hundred years after Hadrian’s death , in around 205 to 207 AD, did the Emperor Septimius Severus reconstructed the Wall that had been runned down after years of neglect. Emperor Severus rebuilt the Wall in order to prevent the invasion of Barbarians that were posing a threat to his power. This had been the same purpose of the Wall thought of by Hadrian. Unfortunately, this Severus’ accomplishments had been neglected from the teaching curriculum of schools around the world.

Severus was slowly erased from history by the 19th century scholars. The truth behind this erasure is linked to racism. In that period, these people mentality was that they did not want to be associated with “others” but solely the Romans in their history. “Others” refers to the skin color and ethnicity of a person being anything other than white. Romans were known for having been rather open minded about the individuals who entered their Empire were not in reality. In fact, they were the ones who would use the term “other” to talk about non-white individuals. Severus had been a “other” born in Libya. He was referred to as Punic in historical recording in which “punic” meant “black or other”. Ironically, he himself was said to have been racist toward other “others”. It was discovered that the city in which he was originally from had been proclaimed an official city-state with all its inhabitants being seen as Romans. Despite all the accomplishments done by Severus, the Englishmen of that time still did not want to be associated with a “other”. They were all for the most part racist which, in the 19th century Britain, was quite common.

The purpose of the “Archaeology of ‘Race’” exhibition was to get rid of this misconception. They focus on the true story regarding Hadrian’s Wall which included Septimius Severus. The emphasized the fact that there had been a “other” as a ruler to counteract the false belief that no non-white individual had participated in the construction their country, Britain. Furthermore, there was proof that was discovered regarding an even bigger implication of “others” in Britain. The book of“ Notitia Dignitatum” which recorded “evidences [of] the presence of Iraqis, Syrians, North Africans and many others the first legions of migrants populating the frontier. Early evidence has been found of garrisons from all over the Empire stationed at Hadrian’s Wall and of their influence and exchanges with local populations. Roman society in Britain can be argued to have been formed from a number of diasporas from across the Empire, whose presence translated the nature, landscape and cultural practices in Britain” (Tolia-Kelly 84).

This paper focused on the history regarding Hadrian’s Wall. It explained the controversy regarding the truth behind its contributors. Both emperors, Hadrian and Septimius Severus were involved at two different times in history. The first one built it while the second one improved its structure a hundred years later. Septimius Severus was erased from the teaching curriculum in school due to his skin color. This type of racism was the rightful way of thinking for both the Romans and the Englishmen of the 19th century. Even though the British may not have wanted to admit it, they would not have been able to reach where they are today without the help of the “others’” nations. The way a person tells story always depends on the intention of the storyteller. In this case, those 19th century scholar purpose was to make their country seem invisible which of course is nothing more than a lie. Hadrian’s Wall is the living proof of one of the biggest accomplishment done by the Romans. It is uncertain that all of the history that lies within it has been found but researcher still have not given up.

Roman Bath Houses

Frigidarium

Location: Viminal, the smallest hill of the Seven Hills of Rome, inside the Agger of the Servian Wall.

Date: Built between 290 to 306 AD

Ruler: Demanded under the reign of Emperor Maximian, built under the reign of Emperor Constantius, and dedicated to Emperor Diocletian.

Description: This frigidarium was part of a thermae which was a public bath. The size of the bath was larger than the ones found in a balneae which is a private bath. It described as having a lot of niches to allow people to sit down comfortably as well as grand statues. Of course, the factors can not be seen in this picture unfortunately.

Baths of Caracalla (Thermae)

Location: Located in the southeast of the ancient Rome center which was located in the famous Seven Hills of Rome.

Date: Built between 212 and 216 AD.

Ruler: Built under the reign of Emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antonius)

Baths of Trajan*

Location:  Located on the top of the Oppian peak of the Esquiline hill, in Rome.

Date: Built between 104 to 109 AD.

Ruler: Built under the reign of Emperor Trajan.

*There was the presence of both type of baths.

ATRIUM

Passing through the principal entrance, (a), which is removed from the street by a narrow footway surrounding the building and after descending three steps, the bather finds a small chamber on his left (x) which contained a water closet (latrina) (BLOG enter example and details in BLOG), and proceeds into a covered portico (g, g), which ran round three sides of an open court (atrium, A). These together formed the vestibule of the baths (vestibulum balnearum), in which the servants waited.

Latriana

This is the Roman version of a toilet. In ancient times, they would all go to the bathroom publically. They would sit on one of the hole that had been made specifically for that purpose to do whatever they needed to do. To clean themselves after they finished a servant was left waiting by them to hand over a cloth so that they could clean themselves.

USE OF THE ATRIUM

This atrium was the exercise ground for the young men, or perhaps served as a promenade for visitors to the baths. Within this court the keeper of the baths (balneator), who exacted the quadrans (BLOG Roman coin) paid by each visitor, was also stationed. The room f, which runs back from the portico, might have been appropriated to him; but most probably it was an oecus or exedra, for the convenience of the better classes while awaiting the return of their acquaintances from the interior. In this court, advertisements for the theatre (BLOG), or other announcements of general interest, were posted up, one of which, announcing a gladiatorial show, still remains. At the sides of the entrance were stone seats (scholae).  

Roman coins

The Romans had invented a currency system to many their growing economy in the 3rd century BC. The used gold, silver, copper, and bronze to make their coins. The size of the coins did not truly matter rather they regarded with what material they were made of and which head had been used. The head of the ruling emperors were carved into one side of the coins which showcased the power the ruler had. One of these rulers had been Alexander the Great who is rumour to have been the first to use to system.

Theatre

The Romans loved entertainment which is why the built so many monument for that sole purpose. A theatre could even be found in a bath house. The purpose of a bath house was to give an place for the citizens to be able to relax, have meetings, and/or take a bath. A theatre was just one more thing to help them relax.

APODYTERIUM AND FRIGIDARIUM

A passage (e) leads into the apodyterium (FIND: B), a room for undressing in which all visitors must have met before entering the baths proper. Here, the bathers removed their clothing, which was taken in charge by slaves known as capsarii, notorious in ancient times for their dishonesty. The apodyterium was a spacious chamber, with stone seats along two sides of the wall (h, h). Holes are still visible on the walls, and probably mark the places where the pegs for the bathers' clothes were set. The chamber was lighted by a glass window, and had six doors. One of these led to the tepidarium (FIND: D) and another to the frigidarium (FIND: C), with its cold plunge-bath (referred to as loutron, natatio, natatorium, piscina, baptisterium or puteus; the terms "natatio" and "natatorium" suggest that some of those baths were also swimming pools). The bath in this chamber is of white marble, approached by two marble steps.

TEPIDARIUM  

From the frigidarium the bather who wished to go through the warm bath and sweating process entered the tepidarium. It did not contain water either at Pompeii or at the baths of Hippias, but was merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm baths, and, upon returning, to prevent a too-sudden transition to the open air. In the baths at Pompeii this chamber also served as an apodyterium for those who took the warm bath. The walls feature a number of separate compartments or recesses for receiving the garments when taken off. The compartments are divided from each other by figures of the kind called Atlantes or Telamones, which project from the walls and support a rich cornice above them. Three bronze benches were also found in the room, which was heated as well by its contiguity to the hypocaust of the adjoining chamber, as by a brazier of bronze (foculus), in which the charcoal ashes were still remaining when the excavation was made. Sitting and perspiring beside such a brazier was called ad flammam sudare.  

USE OF THE TEPIDARIUM

The tepidarium is generally the most highly ornamented room in baths. It was merely a room to sit in and be anointed in. In the Old Baths at Pompeii the floor is mosaic, the arched ceiling adorned with stucco and painting on a coloured ground, the walls red. Anointing was performed by slaves called unctores and aliptae. It sometimes took place before going to the hot bath, and sometimes after the cold bath, before putting on the clothes, in order to check the perspiration. Some baths had a special room (destrictarium or unctorium) for this purpose.   

CALDARIUM  

From the tepidarium a door opened into the caldarium (FIND: E), whose mosaic floor was directly above the furnace or hypocaust. Its walls also were hollow, forming a great flue filled with heated air. At one end was around basin (labrum), and at the other a quadrangular bathing place (puleo's, alveus, solium, calida piscina), approached from the platform (schola) by steps. The labrum held cold water, for pouring upon the bather's head before he left the room. These basins are of marble in the Old Baths, but we hear of alvei of solid silver. Because of the great heat of the room, the caldarium was but slightly ornamented.

LACONICUM

The Old Baths have no laconicum, which was a chamber still hotter than the caldarium, and used simply as a sweating-room, having no bath. It was said to have been introduced at Rome by Agrippa and was also called sudatorium and assa.  

SERVICE AREAS  

The apodyterium has a passage (q) communicating with the mouth of the furnace (r), called praefurnium or propigneum; and, passing down that passage, we reach the chamber M, into which the praefurnium projects, and which is entered from the street at c. It was assigned to the fornacatores, or persons in charge of the fires. Of its two staircases, one leads to the roof of the baths, and one to the boilers containing the water. There were three boilers, one of which (caldarium vas) held the hot water; a second, the tepid (tepidarium); and the third, the cold (frigidarium). The warm water was turned into the warm bath by a pipe through the wall, marked on the plan. Underneath the hot chamber was set the circular furnace d, of more than 7 ft. in diameter, which heated the water and poured hot air into the hollow cells of the hypocaustum (BLOG). It passed from the furnace under the first and last of the caldrons by two flues, which are marked on the plan. The boiler containing hot water was placed immediately over the furnace; and, as the water was drawn out from there, it was supplied from the next, the tepidarium, which was raised a little higher and stood a little way off from the furnace. It was already considerably heated from its contiguity to the furnace and the hypocaust below it, so that it supplied the deficiency of the former without materially diminishing its temperature; and the vacuum in this last was again filled up from the farthest removed, which contained the cold water received directly from the square reservoir seen behind them. The boilers themselves no longer remain, but the impressions which they have left in the mortar in which they were imbedded are clearly visible, and enable us to determine their respective positions and dimensions. Such coppers or boilers appear to have been called miliaria, from their similarity of shape to a milestone (BLOG Roman milestone on a road). Behind the boilers, another corridor leads into the court or atrium (FIND: K) appropriated to the servants of the bath.

 

Hypocaustum

This was a underfloor heating system that was used to heat up bathhouses and other places. They stacked up a pile of concrete which is a good material that can keep the heat inside for a very long time. There were hole in the room to allow the hot air to circulate freely.

Roman milestone on a road

To built their roads the Roman needed a material that was both easy to make but strong enough so that it will last for years on end. They decided to use milestones which was a Roman creation. This type of stone was made of volcanic ashes, limestones and cobbles.

Epigraphy

Translation: IMPEROR CAESAR DIVINE NERVA SON
                    NERVA TRAJAN THE BEST AUGUSTUS
                    GERMANIC DACIAN PONTIFEX MAXIMUS TRIBUNE
                    YOU CAN 17 IMPEROR 7 CONSUL 6 FATHER OF THE FATHERLAND
                    STRONG PRINCIPLES SENATE OF THE PEOPLE OF ROME

Translation: MARCUS AGRIPPA LUCIUS SON CONSUL THIRD MADE IT

Translation: CALTIA MARCUS DAUGHTER

Translation: FROM JUNO

                    MATRONS 

                    OF THE AREA OF PISAURUM

                    HAS GIVEN

Minoan Civilization

1. Are there connections between myth/legend and archaeology?

          The Greek legend of the Minotaur is well known. The story starts off with King Minus who prayed to the Gods that a Bull would be send by the sea. Unfortunately for him, he offended the God Poseidon who decided to punish him by cursing his wife. She will have a sexual longing for a Bull. In the end, the Queen did fall for a Bull and together they had a child. This child was have human and half bull, also known as a Minotaur. Ashamed by her offspring the Queen had a her son hidden in a labyrinth that was constructed beneath the castle. It was this castle that was discovered in the island of Crete. The archaeologist discovered the throne of the King which  was the breakthrough in the search. Another legend well known derives from the story of Troy. One of its main character, Agamenon more specifically. Another archaeologist found what is known as the Mask of Agamemnon in Mycenae. These findings prove that there are connections between myths legends and archaeology.

2. Who was the leading Egyptian archaeologist? What is Mycenae - Egypt - Minoan connection?

           Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853 - 1942) was an English Egyptologist. He believed that the Mycenaeans were not the unique civilization. For example, if people look at the history Egyptian art (i.e. drawings, pottery, statues, etc.) there are some similarities between them and the Mycenaeans. Here, what is the most important fact is that the Egyptian came around 300 years before the Mycenaeans. This English Egyptologist did not believe the Mycenaeans inspiration came from the Egyptian only, rather from another Aegean civilization: the Minoans. The Minoans lived on the island of Crete for away from others. This civilization is known as the first European civilization and many of the archaeological discoveries done in Knossos, Crete, prove its major influence on other civilization.

3. What kind of Bull is this?

           The Bull was a crossbreed with a aurochs making them huge. An auroch was a type of cow that had big horns, measured around 200 cm, and was physically similar to a our present bulls. Based on the drawing that were left behind they would have huge horns, intimidating eyes, a body twice as big as a man, and where quite dangerous. Minoans left drawing and sculpture depicting these animals to show some of the use they were making of them as partners for bull-leaping. Some might think that their Bulls’ dimension is unrealistic but everyone knows’ that bulls exist as well aurochs who are now extinct for the past four centuries. Those two species merging does not seem that unlikely.

Auroch Bull-leaping

4. How is Minoan art reflective of their confidence?

           The Minoans show one of their most dangerous activities in paintings and drawings left behind on many different things, such as walls, potteries, etc. Bull-leaping is life threatening, because if the rider happens to miss his jump then he will die most likely. To be able to accomplish such a dangerous action the Minoans must have been quite a courageous and skilled civilization. Another art that demonstrates the Minoans’ confidence would be the remains of the fresco known as La Parisienne. This fresco depicts a woman showing the right side of her face, light skinned, long wavy dark hair, red lips with a blue scarf around her neck in a white dress. This gives the impression that all women in Crete as pretty and elegant as it is shown in the fresco.

Bull-leaping La Parisienne, fresco

5. What are the sites of Minoan civilization? How are at least two different?

           Two sites of the Minoan civilization would be Knossos and Gournia. Knossos would be the castle of the King Minus from the Minotaur mythology. Gournia would be a merchant city. Most of the castles found on Crete had the same basic. The castle itself, a monasteries, farmlands, a central courtyard, a public arena, and labyrinths. Gournia, being a merchant city, was situated by the sea. Their house would have been done with rocks and wood with around five rooms each.

Alexandria

The original city of Alexandria took many hits throughout centuries. The way it should have looked has been debated greatly between archaeologist. The city was situated in Egypt but has been cohabiting with the Roman cultures after there conquer.

The Arial View Graphically Designed of the Agora 

for the movie Agora

Drawing of the Arial View of the Agora

The presence of the Roman and Egyptian culture is highly present in the city. In front of the Agora are two huge Egyptian statues. There is the presence of an aqueduct, as well as the well paved roads. The image of the Egyptian goddess Isis was represented on the door of the Agora and a gran size sculpture of the Roman god Jupiter was present.

 

Drawing of well paved Roman roads

Egyptian statue in front of the Agora (recreated from for the movie Agora)

The Great Library of Alexandria was burned downed in ancient time before the conquering of the Agora by the Christians. People from all around the world at that time went to Alexandria to study under the care of the greatest minds of their time. Unfortunately, the only thing that can be found today are ruins.

Ruins of the Great Library of Alexandria

These people did not have as many options for entertainment as we do today but they did have theater, music, sports, and books. There instruments may seem weird to look at for us at present but some of them were the ancestors of what we have now.

The tibicen (Roman instrument)

The city was savaged by civil wars between two different groups of religious belief (i.e. Jews and Christians). Finding a map of the city around the 4th and 3rd century BCE was hard, so this map chose the aftermath of years of debate between the two groups.

Map of Ancient Alexandria between 1rst BCE and 1rst AD

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was an amazing ruler and conqueror. After his death, many archaeological findings helped paint an image of his accomplishments during his reign. Researchers have found proof of the existence of monetary usage during his reign. He is not seen as the founder of coinage rather one of its leading supporters. The coin had the image of his head carved into its bronze material. On the site of the city Aï Khanum, in Afghanistan, was found the remains of the city during the time of Alexander the Great. What is sad about its discovery is that it happened after one of the many civil wars happening in the country. The site was ruined because of the bombing done by its own ignorant inhabitants. There, they found proof of Greek culture such as sculptures, pillars, a theater, a gymnasium, and many more. A statue of the director of the gymnasium was found in the building itself, in a traditionally Greek style, with perfect details that allows us, thousands of years later, to see the exact physical features of the old director. A fresco with a drawing of two people in a chase with one holding the horses’ reign was found and maybe link to Greek mythology. A small statue of the well known Greek hero, Hercules, was found but its representation is not what most people would have expected. There is a big piece of clay on which seven majors rules were written by Alexander the Great. It was found in the central shrine of the city. These findings showed great intellectual understandings of the past and showed what a great leader Alexander the Great was.

Coin of Alexander the Great                        A Fresco of Greek mythology

        

The director of the gymnasium      

 

   The major rules of Alexander the Great

Aphrodite: Cycladic figure

Name: None. Referred to as the "Standing female figure"

Date: ca. 2600-2400 B. C., Early Cycladic II

Material: Marble

Location: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

My Black & White version

My Colored version

Mesopotamia-Egypt

Royal Tomb of Ur

The British version of the account of the Royal Tomb of Ur was told in a story-like manner that a child could understand and enjoy. As opposed to the American version, in which the article seemed to focus on advertising the Museum of Pennsylvania rather than truly giving an educational lesson. The director of the Museum of Pennsylvania, C. B. Gordon, was the one who taught of the idea of having a jointed expedition with the British Museum, contacting the museum director, Sir Frediric Kenyon. Together, they asked a mutual friend, Sir Charles Leonard Wolley to be in charge of the expedition. Through his search, he found a burial ground where some among the dead were royalty. To prevent a leak of information from occurring, Sir Charles Leonard Wolley send a telegram in Latin to the museum directors.  One thing that caught his attention in particular was Queen Puabi’s tomb. There, he discovered a bull-headed lyre. In the beginning of the excavation, the Sir Wolley’s interest was in the architectural aspect of the burial ground; it was only later on that he truly explored the site, revealing its treasure.  

Rosetta Stone

Under the rule of Napoleon, the French army invaded Egypt and found the Rosetta Stone, in Alexandria. In 1801, the English army soon defeated the French who had no choice but to surrender. The French general had sent out a letter asking for back-up but he was considered crazy and his request was denied. His troops consisted mostly of researchers, not fit to be soldiers. Under the supervision of the Englishmen, the Frenchmen were given the right to leave Alexandria with all there personal belongings which included the historical findings. Now, the Rosetta Stone was coveted by the English but the French general simply said it was his private property. Even though, the British ended up with the valuable artifact, how they managed to gain it is where it gets a bit sketchy. Based on the account of two men who had two different memory of how everything happened no one is really sure. The version that makes the most sense would be that the French general was betrayed and that is how he lost the stone. When the English scholar that was put in charge of decipher the writing on the Rosetta Stone, he had only managed to recognize the names of certain royalties. It was a French scholar that made a true breakthrough by understanding how the Egyptian writings worked themselves. It seems like the British owe the French for their discoveries of the ancient times, seeing as how they made all the efforts.

Ramses II

The statue of Ramses II represents the intelligence of the Egyptian culture as well as the power that this King had over his people. The Egyptian took into consideration the concept of proportion when they were making the statue. This showed that mathematics was involved. The number of people that was needed to create this wonderful piece of art is unimaginable. These people had to be trained, housed and fed, because this project most likely took years to accomplish. This showed that the Egyptians were a tight and well organized community. Of course, they needed a leader that made them be this well mannered which would be Ramses II. In the textbook, there is not a lot of talk about the statue rather it focuses on Ramses II himself. The book talks about all of this king’s major achievement and the statue is just one thing out of many. The things he managed to accomplished through the making of the statue can be seen through his other achievements. Like, for example, his control over his people when it describes his military success. The Egyptian people stayed loyal to him even when it seemed like they were going to lose the battle.